If the surface temperature is 15°c , then the temperature at 10000 ft in a current of ascending unsaturated air is:
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·Sources of complexity//Variability- graphical Presentation and statistics//Integrative- interactions among numerous variables//Contingency- Sequence of events matters//These sources are interconnected
·Ecology- study of where things live, “oikos” à Physiological ecology- organismal Level //Population ecology- species level // Community ecology- study of the Distribution, abundance, and interactions of co-existing populations
·Evolution- study of change in genetic composition of a Population during successive generations; can result in the appearance of new Species à Major Mechanism is natural selection
·Phylogeny- study of the historical relationships among Species
·Biodiversity
oTaxonomy- Classification, identification, and naming of organisms
oPhylogenetic- Study of evolutionary relatedness among groups of species
oSpecies Richness- counting number of species
oGenetic Diversity- within a species
·Tropics- experience the greatest input in solar Radiation
oNear the Equator, solar radiation travels a short distance through the atmosphere and Strikes a small surface area; the sun’s energy is spread out over a small area
·Global air circulation patterns
o6 total Major convection cycles, 3 on each side
oAt the Equator, there is a lot of solar energy coming in
§Latitudes are north to south
oAs air is Warmed It gets less dense and rises
oSpin of the Earth causes friction on some air masses- Coriolis Effect
oAs air rises It gets cooler and forms condensation
oAir moves From high to low pressure areas
oThe earth’s Rotation deflects the air movement to create global wind patterns
§Always name wind from where it came from (example: Westerlies came from the west)
oWhen we cut Down forests, we change the weather
·Ocean current
oRedistributes Heat, influences the distribution of nutrients
oGyre- spin Like current
§Causes garbage patches in the ocean
oMovement From the equator brings hot water which then cools at higher latitudes
oWind going Parallel to the coast will cause surface current to flow away from the coast Which then causes water from higher depths to rise
oFisheries Use the tracking of these to help their business
·Coastal habitats
oKelp forests And mangroves are found around the world
oMangroves Are better about trapping nutrients
·Seasonality
oSummer Solstice- midday sunlight strikes Earth more directly in the Northern Hemisphere—the Sun is higher in the sky and casts smaller shadows
oWinter Solstice is the opposite
oSeasonality Is determined by Earth’s tilted axis of rotation and its annual passage around The sun
oEquinoxes- Day length in the tropics is exactly 12 hours
·Factors that affect local environment
oLarge bodies Of water (reduces temperature swings) – high specific heat of water
oTopography- Hills and slopes, mountains and rain shadow
§Aspect- direction slope is facing and how it affects Moisture and temperature
§Angle of slope- affects drainage
oAltitude
oBedrock- Type determines type and composition of soil which determines plant species in An area
·Large bodies of water
oWarm air Over the land rise and moves over water, cool air sinks over water and is blown Back over land
§At night, the cycle reverses
§At dawn and dusk is when the shift happens
oTemperature Ranges in southern hemisphere are smaller than those of northern hemisphere
§More water in southern hemisphere, which has a more Stable temperature
·Mountains
oBasin is a Large flat area
oRain shadow- Coastal water is carried in and hits the mountains on the windward side
oAspect
§North facing slope- less solar radiation, cooler, less Evapotranspiration
§South facing slope- more solar radiation, warmer, Dryer, greater evapotranspiration
·Only for northern hemisphere
oAltitude
§Lower montane zone- highest temperature, lowest Precipitation
§Montane zone
§Subalpine zone
§Alpine zone
§For every 1km increase in elevation, you decrease in Temperature of 3.6 degrees Fahrenheit, same as going 700 miles north
oBedrock- Affects habitat that is grown
§Endemic plants- found only in one specific region
·Variations in the physical environment underlie the Diversity of biological systems
·The physical environment ultimately determines where Organisms live (distribution).
·The physical (abiotic) environment varies widely over The earth’s surface
oSpatial and Temporal variation
oDiverse, Mosaic of habitats
·Distribution of Major Terrestrial Biomes
oLargely Determined by temperature and mean participation
·Tropical Rainforests
oHot, little Variation in temperature throughout the year
oAverage Precipitation is on average 200 cm per year
§Usually dry and wet season, but not a huge change Between them
oUsually Located near the equator
oInfertile Soil but high species richness
§Only top surface of soil has nutrients in it
§Greater than 50% of the world’s terrestrial species Can be found in tropical rainforests
§Most nutrients are in the living biomass
§Intense competition for light, water, nutrients
§In one hectare, there will be between 40 and 300 Species of trees
§1500 species of butterflies per square mile
§During this lecture, we will lose 3 species from the Tropics
·Savannas and Tropical seasonal forests
oFound a bit North and south of the tropics
oA bit of a Seasonality in temperature
oVery Distinct wet and dry seasons
oLess rain on Average than the tropics
oMore fertile But can still be nutrient-poor
§Bedrock is so far away
oDominant Vegetation- mix of grass and forbs
§Forbs- all non-woody plants besides grass
§Increase in grass, decrease in trees as you move Further away from the equator
oHome of Large herbivores- giraffes, kangaroos
oOccasional Fires are used for maintenance- adapted for this and seasonal drought
·Temperate Woodlands and Scrublands
oWhen it is Hot, its dry
oFound in Mediterranean coast, South Africa, California
oLots of Endemics in this reason
oMild, wet Winter
oAdaptation To fire and seasonal drought
·Desert
oVery low Precipitation
oSeasonal Variation in temperature can depend on the location of where they’re located
o25-degree N And S latitude
oHigh sand Content in soil, infertile, low water-holding capacity
oPlant-life Is sparse and low to the ground
§Succulents- cacti
oMight be a Tiny bit of a rainy season- causes a flush of wildflowers
·Temperate Grassland
oDominated by Grasses
oLocated Farther north and south of the equator
oLarge Temperature range- hot summers and cold winters
oSoil is deep And fertile
oFarms are Usually placed here
·Temperate Deciduous Forests
oAverage Temperature is a little bit lower
oAverage Precipitation is a bit higher
oWater is Frozen in some portions of the year
oLots of Plants lose their years
oSoil is Relatively rich
oDominant Vegetation is trees- oaks, maples, birches
oMuch of the Area is being logged
·Boreal Forests- taiga, northern coniferous
oHigher in Latitude
oAverage Precipitation is quite low
oTemperature Varies seasonally
oVery long Summer days, long winter nights
oLow Diversity in tree species
oLargest Terrestrial biome
oLittle Understory vegetation
·Tundra
oNorthern Limits of plant growth
oOpen, boggy Community
oLittle rain
oTemperature Range is mostly below freezing
oSoil is Permafrost- ground is frozen within a meter of the surface (infertile)
oPerennial Shrubs, flowers, mosses, lichens
·Aquatic biomes- largest part of the biosphere
oPelagic Zone- open water
oBenthic Zone- layer at the bottom of the ocean or a lake
oMany aquatic Biomes are physically and chemically stratified
§Layering has to do with where you are in regards to The surface
§Photic zone- close to top of water, light reaches
§Layering with respect to pressure and nutrients
oLakes
§Oligotrophic- clear, lacks some nutrients
§Eutrophic- too much of one nutrient, forms Deoxygenated zone
oWetlands- Inundated by waters at least some of the time - Among the most productive Biomes
oEstuaries- Transition Are between river and sea
oCoral Reefs
§Low nutrients in water column but are high in biodiversity
§Shallow and deep sea
oIntertidal Zones-Periodically submerged and exposed//Changes in physical conditions
oOcean Pelagic zone- Covers approximately 70% of world’s surfaces
oMarine Benthic Zone-Very high pressures
·Biodiversity
oThe number Of species- about 1.9 million known, named species living today
§Undiscovered species numbers vary greatly
oGenetic Variation within a population
oGenetic Variation across populations
oEcosystem Diversity
·Biodiversity: Known and Estimated
oMammals: 5,487 known, 5,500 estimated
oBirds: 9,990 Known, 10,000 estimated
oInsects: 1 Million known, 5 million estimated
oVascular Plants: 281,621 known, 368,050 estimated
oBacteria and Archaea: 7,643 known, 1 million estimated
oWe are Currently in the age of discovery with new technology and a great motivation to Make sure species don’t go extinct without science knowing
oIn 2016, 17,000 species were discovered
§Half were insects
o25% of all Known amphibians have been discovered in the last 10 years
o86% of Terrestrial and 91% of marine species have yet to be discovered
oMekong River Watershed
§Between 1997-2007, over 1,000 new species have been Discovered and described
§About 2 species a week
§519 plants, 279 fish, 88 frogs, 88 spiders, 46 Lizards, 22 snakes, 15 mammals
·Conservation Diplomacy
oIn some Regions of the world, conflict and politics make it difficult to study Biodiversity
o80% of armed Clashes in the last 50 years have been in areas of high biodiversity
oNew species Discoveries likely to happen in Cuba
oWilderness Buffers between countries can lead to further dialogue and peace
§Peru/Ecuador border
·Values of Biodiversity
oAesthetic Value
oEcosystem integrity
oEconomic Value- ecosystem services to people is worth trillions of dollars worldwide
·Spatial Scales of Disturbances
oDisturbance- A relatively discrete event in time that removes organisms or otherwise Disrupts the community by influencing the availability of space or food Resources, or by changing the physical environment
oSmall Disturbances (less than 1000 hectares)
§Secondary successions
oMedium Disturbances (1000 hectares to millions of hectares)
§Primary succession
§Dynamic equilibrium
oLarge Disturbances (continents to global)
§Mass extinctions
§Speciation
·Small Disturbances
oSecondary Succession- starts with a disturbance that removes most of the vegetation
oDiffers from Primary succession because it does not start from the bare ground
oForest Clearing through logging
oThe process By which the biological community of a given site changes over time (usually Following a disturbance)
oSpecies Composition changes over time
§Pioneer/early-successional species (better dispersal)
§These species are eventually replaced by Late-successional species (more competitive)
§If no disturbance, climax species come to dominate
oEach Organism not only responds to the environment but also modifies it and, in Doing so, becomes part of the broader environment itself
oAt a larger Spatial scale, all species can coexist, despite even a high frequency or Severity of disturbances.
§Spatial heterogeneity
§A mosaic of patches recovering from different levels Of disturbance that occurred at different times in the past
§Patches of differing sizes and ages provide a wide Variety of environmental conditions
§Each patch is occupied by species adapted to its niche
oShifting Mosaic- add a temporal component to the spatial model above
·Primary Succession
oHarsh Abiotic conditions, initial species develop soil